Symbol p

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…often reported as though it settled the question of robustness on its own. Suppose a safeguard blocks a fixed, independently generated attack attempt with probability 1-p , so a single try succeeds only with probability p . An adversary who is not limited to one try, and who runs k independent attempts — exactly the loop PAIR and the suffix-search method both implement mechanically [ 2 , 1 ] — succeeds at least once with probability $P(\text{at least one success in } k \text{ tries}) = 1 - (1-p)^k$. At p = 0.05 , a safeguard that looks 95% reliable per…

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