Equation 10 · OpenAI Model Systems from First Principles: Weights, Post-Training, and Inference Compute
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with N parameters and D training tokens, the factor of six counting the forward and backward passes. Empirically, test loss falls as a power law in each of parameters, data, and compute over many orders of magnitude, a relationship first characterised systematically by Kaplan and colleagues [ 5 ] . The important structural feature is the functional form: a term of the shape
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