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An open excavation trench at golden-hour daylight, one archaeologist's trowel paused mid-scrape at a mudbrick wall line while a section face across the trench is half-drawn on a clipboard.

Comparing the Main Approaches to Agriculture, Cities, and Complex Societies

Excavation, ancient DNA, and comparative historical databases each answer a different question about how farming, states, and cities formed—and none of them can replace the other two.

By Brecht Corbeel · August 27, 2026 · 16 min read

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